Alcatraz: From Military Fort to Federal Prison to Symbol of Native American Resistance

The island sits 1.25 miles offshore from San Francisco's Fisherman's Wharf, close enough to see the city's lights on a clear night but separated by the Bay's notoriously cold and treacherous currents. Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary housed 1,545 inmates during its 29-year operating run from 1934 to 1963, including Al Capone, Robert Stroud, and Machine Gun Kelly. Today, roughly 1.4 million visitors cross to the island each year, making it one of the most visited sites in the National Park Service system.

Before the Prison: Military Alcatraz

The United States military established a presence on Alcatraz in 1850, less than a year after California's admission to the union. The island's strategic position commanding the entrance to San Francisco Bay made it an obvious choice for fortification during the gold rush era. A lighthouse — the first on the Pacific Coast — was operational by 1854. The military garrison grew steadily, and by the Civil War era, Alcatraz held Confederate sympathizers, deserters, and civilians convicted of treason alongside military prisoners.

The military prison era lasted until 1933, when declining prisoner populations and aging infrastructure prompted the Army to transfer the island to the Department of Justice. The Federal Bureau of Prisons recognized its potential: the currents, cold water temperatures averaging 54 degrees Fahrenheit, and distance from shore made escape attempts essentially suicidal. Of the 36 men who attempted escape during the federal prison years, 23 were caught, six were shot and killed, two drowned, and five vanished — presumed drowned but never confirmed.

The 1969 Occupation and Its Legacy

When the federal penitentiary closed in 1963, citing costs of $10 per day per prisoner compared to $3 at other federal facilities, the island sat unused. A coalition of Native American activists, organized as Indians of All Tribes, seized upon this vacancy in November 1969. Led by Richard Oakes, a Mohawk student from San Francisco State College, and drawing participants from dozens of nations, the occupiers cited the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty's provision that surplus federal land be returned to Native peoples.

The occupation lasted 19 months and drew national attention at a pivotal moment in the emerging Native American rights movement. The occupiers established a school, a medical clinic, and cultural programs. They demanded that the island be converted to a Native American university and cultural center. The federal government ended the occupation in June 1971 by cutting off water and electricity. But the political impact endured: the occupation directly influenced President Nixon's policy shift toward Native American self-determination, ending the federal termination policy that had stripped tribes of recognition and land holdings since the 1950s.

The Prison Tourism Economy

The National Park Service assumed control of Alcatraz in 1972 as part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area, and the site opened to the public in 1973. The audio tour, narrated by former guards and inmates, is now available in 11 languages. Ferry service is provided under contract by Alcatraz Cruises, with round-trip tickets running $45.25 for adults, and departures from Pier 33. Advance booking is strongly recommended, particularly in summer months when the island can be near capacity.

The Park Service has worked to integrate Native American perspectives into the island's interpretive programming, including murals from the 1969 occupation that remain visible on building facades and a garden restoration project led by the Ohlone people who originally inhabited the Bay Area. The occupation's anniversary is marked each November 20th with a gathering on the island, now sanctioned by the Park Service.

The Escapes That Defined the Myth

Of all Alcatraz's history, the 1962 escape attempt by Frank Morris and brothers John and Clarence Anglin remains the most debated. The three men spent months crafting papier-mâché dummy heads for their beds, chiseling through cell walls with spoons, and building an inflatable raft from 50 stolen raincoats. They were never found. The FBI officially closed the case in 1979, concluding they drowned. In 2013, Dutch forensic investigators using ocean current modeling suggested the timing of the escape gave the men a plausible survival window if they reached shore before dawn. The case remains officially unsolved.

Related: Federal Power and the Courts | American Society and Justice | America's Mental Health Crisis